Geometric Road Design For Autonomous Vehicle Report/Dissertation

Part 1

Road Geometric Elements

Introduction

This report defines the most basic geometric features of road design that conforms with UK standards while highlighting the features that are critical in defining safe, efficient and functional roads. These are; alignment, lane width, shoulder, median, intersection, road marking, sidewalk, curb, sight distance, turning lane, parking lane and drainage facilities. I note that the report enunciates on guidelines such as the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges and the Manual for Streets as key to achieving safe traffic flow, accessibility, and long-term road structure sustainability as encapsulated by proper road geometry.

Horizontal Alignment

This paper aims at defining and explaining horizontal alignment, which relates to the manner in which the road is positioned in the horizontal plane and includes straight line and curves. In this regard it is significant for safety and efficiency of traffic flow, comfort and ease of handling and behaviour of traffic participants at road space. The DMRB has standard specifications for the design of roads and bridges in the United Kingdom; nevertheless, it has particular specifications for the horizontal alignment of roads.

Figure 1: Horizontal Alignment

(Source: https://media.cheggcdn.com)

Specifications:

Minimum Radius of Curves:

For design speeds of 50 km/h: 130 meters

For design speeds of 100 km/h: 600 meters

Superelevation (Curve Banking):

A maximum superelevation of 6% is used, but this depends on the design speed and curve radius that is used during the reconstruction.

Transition Curves:

These transition curves should ideally be between 30-60 metres where the road lies in an urban area and 60-150 metres if located in a rural area.

Design Speed (km/h)	Minimum Curve Radius (m)	Superelevation (%)
50	130	4-6
100	600	4-6

Horizontal alignment is paramount in the goal of making roads safe by minimising sharp bends that limit driver control and comfort.

Vertical Alignment

Vertical clearances are defined as the road’s position in the vertical plane, namely gradients, crests, and sag curves. It affects stability in cars and comfort as well as the rate at which fluids drain on vehicles (Biancardo et al. 2020). Parallax, the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB), allows briefly referencing to vertical alignments depending on the type of road and design speed.

Figure 2: Vertical Alignment

(Source: https://www.researchgate.net)

Specifications:

Maximum Gradient:

For motorways and high-speed roads: 4-5%

For rural roads: 7-8%

Minimum Gradient:

At least 0.5% to ensure that water dispelled from the ground has an appropriate channel.

Vertical Curves:

Crest curves: Minimum design speed of 100 km/h with 250 metres of radius.

Sag curves: Implementation of the minimum design speed of 50 km/h with an accompanying minimum radius of 100 metres.

Design Speed (km/h)	Maximum Gradient (%)	Minimum Radius (m) for Curves
50	7	100
100	4	250

In terms of safety, vehicle comfort and drainage, vertical alignment is said to be important.

Lane Width

Width of the lanes is also one of the most important design features of an ideal road that plays a very important role in improving safety of vehicles on the road, their control and traffic (Roddick & Cipolla, 2020). The current UK standards, contained in Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB) and Manual for Streets (MfS), do identify how many lanes should be provided and what their width should be depending on the type of road and traffic conditions expected.

Figure 3: Lane Width

(Source: https://nacto.org)

Specifications:

Single-carriageway roads:

Standard road width measures 3.0 metres on average width which is also typical of lanes.

In general, it is only acceptable to provide limited width access (2.75 metres) on rural roads where traffic intensity is low.

Dual carriageways/motorways:

Biggest lane width commonly is 3.65 metres to help to bear higher traffic density and broader vehicles.

Urban roads:

Lane width may vary between 2.75m and 3m depending on such factors as local factors such as places of major congestion or space restrictions.

Road Type	Lane Width (meters)
Single-carriageway	3.0
Dual carriageway	3.65
Urban roads	2.75–3.0

Optimal width of the lanes is crucial for safety, free traffic flow and might also provide comfort for the users.

Shoulder

The shoulder of a road means an area for sporadic stop and start, pedestrians, cyclists and the road maintenance work. This is very important for safety and organisation of traffic in the territories of states, and also for smooth work of transport system (Mitrović et al. 2020). The Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB) introduced in UK classifies the dimensions of shoulders depending on the roads’ type and traffics flow density.

Figure 4: Road Shoulder

(Source: https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com)

Specifications:

Motorways and dual carriageways:

Road width across the shoulder should be between 2.0m to 2.5m to allow room for Emergency vehicles as well as breakdown vehicles.

Single-carriageway roads:

Recommended width of shoulders ranges from 1.0 to 1.5 metres depending with the design speed and traffic conditions.

Urban roads:

Shoulders may be incorporated into or associated with affected roads with 1.0 to 2.0 metres in width either in footpaths or cycle lanes.

Road Type	Shoulder Width (meters)
Motorways/Dual	2.0–2.5
Single-carriageway	1.0–1.5
Urban roads	1.0–2.0

This means that proper design of the shoulder improves on road safety particularly in event of an occurrences and also aids in increased civil designs.

Median

Medians are the middle divides of the road that separates the opposite moving lanes (Houston et al. 2021). TheyBitmap of road design They also involve in enhancing safety through averting head-on collisions, road signs, lighting and also provision of space for vegetation. It should also be noted that according to UK standards set down in the DMRB, median design depends on the type of road and traffic intensity.

Figure 5: Road Median

(Source: https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com)

Specifications:

Dual carriageways:

Depending on the design, median width varies between 1.5 to 3.0 metres.

A wider median may be provided on such roads or for future widening of the road on high traffic bearing roads.

Motorways:

Minimum of 2.0 metres of width in order to create clear distinction as well as enhance safety.

Urban roads:

In more confined setting, the medians are thinner (1.5 metres wide are common).

Road Type	Median Width (meters)
Dual carriageway	1.5–3.0
Motorways	2.0
Urban roads	1.5

Medians are very important for optimization of traffic situations as well traffic safety particularly on high speed roads.

Intersection

Intersections are basically joining points between two roads whereby the design of the said junction determines flow, safety and efficiency (Džambas et al. 2021). Britain guidelines, which are in the DMRB and MfS, give information on how road intersections should be designed including roundabouts, signalised junctions and priority junctions.

Figure 6: Road Intersection

(Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org)

Specifications:

Roundabouts:

Minimum inscribed circle diameter for major roads: 30 meters.

Large roundabouts (45–60 m) can be installed where traffic intensity is higher, or where oversized vehicles are employed.

Signalized junctions:

Design is paramount as it concerns vehicle capacity statutes, signal periods, and pedestrian crossing points.

Minimum lateral clearance at intersections should measure at least 10-15 metres for proper turn at intersections to manoeuvre.

Priority junctions:

Enough visibility and clearances so that traffic could run freely and afford adequate space to enter or leave.

Intersection Type	Design Specifications
Roundabout	30–60 meters diameter
Signalized Junction	Vehicle capacity, signals
Priority Junction	10–15 meters turning radius

Hence, functional design of intersection can guarantee the following; safety for users, less congestion and better traffic flow.

Road Marking

Signs and road markings are used to regulate and signal traffic in an attempt to improve the general safety of the road as well as in efforts to direct the movement and behaviour of road users (Liu et al. 2023). The TSRGD and the DMRB provide the specifications for road markings in UK.

Figure 7: Road Marking

(Source: https://www.shutterstock.com)

Specifications:

Lane markings:

Vertical lines of the same colour meant no overtaking or lane change is allowed on that carriageway.

Sandy dig for white lines of separation of lanes.

Zebra crossings:

Striped black and white with yellow zig-zagged patterns on the pathway towards it.

Cycle lanes:

Usually painted as a double line, either a solid or dashed line defining area of bicycle from that of motor vehicle and is 1.5 metres wide.

Stop lines:

Sited 5 metres before the junction so vehicles can be forced to stop at the station.

Marking Type	Specification
Lane markings	Solid or broken white lines
Zebra crossings	Black and white stripes, yellow zig-zags
Cycle lanes	Solid or dashed, 1.5 meters
Stop lines	5 meters before junction

Proper roadmap demarcation is important for reducing risks that endanger the lives of drivers and walkers, enhancing the smooth flow of vehicle movement, and preventing crashes.

Side Walks

A footway or sidewalk is the path for pedestrians that is an important non-motorised infrastructure for road safety and comfort (Luo et al. 2024). The most important reference documents regarding sidewalks in the United Kingdom’s public realm are the Manual for Streets (MfS) and the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB), which addresses the provision of safety, comfort and accessibility to pedestrians.

Figure 8: Side Walk

(Source: https://nacto.org)

Specifications:

Width:

Minimum width for urban areas: 1.8 metres to make pedestrians to be able to walk conveniently.

Where there is more traffic or where space allows the widths are usually between 2.5m and above.

Materials:

The exterior should not be slippery, some of which include concrete, asphalt or paving slabs among others.

Crossings:

It also recommended that pedestrian crossing should be indicated well and that there should be reasonable distances between them.

Increased use of tactile paving should be encouraged especially at crossing and junctions.

Area Type	Minimum Sidewalk Width (meters)
Urban areas	1.8
Busier areas	2.5 or more

They are important for the provision of safe streets for pedestrians, enhancing the Boulevard and the ability for most people to utilise ones feet as a mode of transport.

Road Curb

Guards are useful to denote the limits of a carriageway, to segregate vehicular traffic from pedestrian pathways and for drain purposes. UK standards for curbs are in the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, specifically section 8C and also in the Manual for Streets, section 3 (Stanković et al. 2020).

Figure 9: Road Curb

(Source: https://media.istockphoto.com)

Specifications:

Height:

City streets level is 125mm while some adjustments may be made for 150 mm for bus lanes, and more for traffic management purposes.

Design:

Should be strong and constructed by using concrete, granite or asphalt.

Due to accessibility, dropped curbs should be availed at crossings for wheel chair and prams.

Gutter:

Produced gutters the one near the curb must slope towards the drain to allow free flow of water.

Curb Type	Height (mm)
Standard urban roads	125
Bus routes/traffic calming	150

Measures improve road safety and traffic conditions and drainage and are inseparable from pedestrian access requirements.

Sight Distance

Sight distance is the excess length of road that a driver can be able to see ahead in order to stop, overtake or get through a curve (Babić et al. 2020). The Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB) gives the United Kingdom standards for sight distance to avoid the occurrence of accidents.

Figure 10: Sight Distance

(Source: https://engineeringdiscoveries.com)

Specifications:

Stopping Sight Distance (SSD):

Minimum distance in relation to an object, which is needed to safely stop a vehicle after the driver has sighted an obstacle.

At a design speed of 50 km/h, the SSD is normally 90 metres for the particular design.

When the design speed is 100Km/h the number of the SSD usually becomes 215 metres.

Intersection Sight Distance (ISD):

Makes certain that those who are on the road while waiting at a junction can also see other traffic.

As for ISD, this value is 160-200 metres for higher-speed roads.

Design Speed (km/h)	Stopping Sight Distance (m)
50	90
100	215

Sight distance means the number of metres that a driver gets in front of the car in order to be able to identify the available obstacles.

Turn Lanes

Looping facilities are sections of roads created specifically to enable turning operations to be made without necessarily affecting through traffic (Chen et al. 2025). The carrying out of turn lanes clearly states the design standard within the United Kingdom in sub section of the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges to guarantee security and efficiency within junctions.

Figure 11: Turn Lanes

(Source: https://media-blog.zutobi.com)

Specifications:

Lane Width:

Usually, turn lanes should be as wide as 3.0 metres to allow a variety of vehicles and particularly the large ones to use the turn lane.

Length:

The length of turn lanes should be adequate so that 10-20 vehicles can stack up whilst still not hindering through traffic flow.

For example, on the highly congested road, the turning lane can take up to 50 metres.

Turning Radii:

Turn lanes should have radii of between 10 and 15 metres to allow ease of turning with cars‘ and trucks.’

Road Type	Turn Lane Width (meters)	Minimum Length (meters)
Urban roads	3.0	10–20
High-traffic roads	3.0	30–50

Proper TD design minimises congestion, traffic flow, and increases safety at the intersections, therefore is an important factor to consider.

Parking Lanes

It’s a GENERAL ROADWIDTH element which is a specific areas on the side of the road for parking of cars, commonly observed on standard urban and/or residential roads (Tang et al. 2020). The parking lanes in the United Kingdom follow standards set in the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB) and the Manual for Streets (MfS).

Figure 12: Parking Lanes

(Source: https://www.shutterstock.com)

Specifications:

Width:

While parking in parallel form, lanes should be a minimum of 2.0 metres wide for standard size vehicles.

Angle or perpendicular parking may require lane widths of 3.0-3.5 metres.

Design:

Reasons that this should include the road markings to define the space for parking is as follows.

Moving space must allow car enough space to move into a parking position and enough space to move out of a parking position without interlocking with other moving cars.

Access:

No parking lane should encroach on pedestrian sidewalks although there should be proper cross overs for pedestrians.

Parking Type	Lane Width (meters)	Space Width (meters)
Parallel parking	2.0	2.4
Angle parking	3.0–3.5	2.5

Dimensioning of parking lanes enhances safety, minimise traffic congestion and allow easy access of parking by any driver and pedestrians.

Drainage System

Appropriate drainage system decreases the impact of water runoff and specially aid in avoiding floods and strength of road construction (Gordon et al. 2021). The current standards for road drainage practise in the UK can be described in the DMRB which gives information on the design, construction, and management of drainage.

Figure 12: Road Drainage

(Source: https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com)

Specifications:

Surface Drainage:

Roads should be cambered so that water will be drained into the drains. Cross fall or slope is to have a minimum of 2.5% to facilitate free flow of water.

Gutters:

The cross-section commonly varies with respect to the road class and traffic flow and may range between 0.5m and 1m for the gutter section width.

Subsurface Drainage:

Employment of the suitable perforated pipe or French drains to ensure that water congestion underneath the road is avoided.

Minimum distance of drain- age system should be 1.0 metre below the surface level of the road.

Drainage Type	Specification
Surface drainage	Crossfall 2.5% minimum
Gutter Width	0.5–1.0 meters
Subsurface Drainage	1.0 meter depth

Adequate drainage provision promotes safety of the roads, minimises on frequent maintenance, and also the durability of the roads.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the geometric design of roads, as outlined by UK standards, plays a pivotal role in ensuring safety, efficiency, and comfort for all road users. Proper attention to elements such as horizontal and vertical alignment, lane width, shoulders, medians, intersections, road markings, sidewalks, curbs, sight distance, turn lanes, parking lanes, and drainage systems is essential for creating a well-functioning road network. Adhering to the specifications provided in the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB) and the Manual for Streets (MfS) ensures that roads are not only safe but also durable and accessible, supporting sustainable transportation systems.

Reference List

Journals

• Babić, D., Fiolić, M., Babić, D. and Gates, T., 2020. Road markings and their impact on driver behaviour and road safety: A systematic review of current findings. Journal of advanced transportation, 2020(1), p.7843743.
• Biancardo, S.A., Capano, A., de Oliveira, S.G. and Tibaut, A., 2020. Integration of BIM and procedural modeling tools for road design. Infrastructures, 5(4), p.37.
• Chen, J., Wu, Y., Tan, J., Ma, H. and Furukawa, Y., 2025. Maptracker: Tracking with strided memory fusion for consistent vector hd mapping. In European Conference on Computer Vision (pp. 90-107). Springer, Cham.
• Džambas, T., Dragčević, V., Bezina, Š. and Grgić, M., 2021. Reliability of vehicle movement simulation results in roundabout design procedure based on the rules of design vehicle movement geometry. Road and Rail Infrastructure VI; Lakušic, S., Ed.; The University of Zagreb Faculty of Civil Engineering: Zagreb, Croatia, pp.507-515.
• Gordon, J., Maselli, A., Lancia, G.L., Thiery, T., Cisek, P. and Pezzulo, G., 2021. The road towards understanding embodied decisions. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 131, pp.722-736.
• Houston, J., Zuidhof, G., Bergamini, L., Ye, Y., Chen, L., Jain, A., Omari, S., Iglovikov, V. and Ondruska, P., 2021, October. One thousand and one hours: Self-driving motion prediction dataset. In Conference on Robot Learning (pp. 409-418). PMLR.
• Liu, Y., Yuan, T., Wang, Y., Wang, Y. and Zhao, H., 2023, July. Vectormapnet: End-to-end vectorized hd map learning. In International Conference on Machine Learning (pp. 22352-22369). PMLR.
• Luo, K.Z., Weng, X., Wang, Y., Wu, S., Li, J., Weinberger, K.Q., Wang, Y. and Pavone, M., 2024, May. Augmenting lane perception and topology understanding with standard definition navigation maps. In 2024 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA) (pp. 4029-4035). IEEE.
• Mitrović Simić, J., Stević, Ž., Zavadskas, E.K., Bogdanović, V., Subotić, M. and Mardani, A., 2020. A novel CRITIC-Fuzzy FUCOM-DEA-Fuzzy MARCOS model for safety evaluation of road sections based on geometric parameters of road. Symmetry, 12(12), p.2006.
• Roddick, T. and Cipolla, R., 2020. Predicting semantic map representations from images using pyramid occupancy networks. In Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (pp. 11138-11147).
• Stanković, M., Stević, Ž., Das, D.K., Subotić, M. and Pamučar, D., 2020. A new fuzzy MARCOS method for road traffic risk analysis. Mathematics, 8(3), p.457.
• Tang, F., Ma, T., Zhang, J., Guan, Y. and Chen, L., 2020. Integrating three-dimensional road design and pavement structure analysis based on BIM. Automation in construction, 113, p.103152.

Discover the future of transportation with our expertly crafted sample paper on geometric road design for autonomous vehicles. This in-depth resource explores how optimized road layouts, signage, and infrastructure are pivotal for enhancing the safety and efficiency of autonomous vehicles (AVs). Dive into cutting-edge insights that bridge engineering and innovation to shape smarter, safer roads. For your academic excellence, take our assignment help offered by London-based experts and fuel your academic success.

Part 2

Design Of An Algorithm To Propose Automatized Road Design With Earthwork Optimization By LCA

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Introduction

This study increased concern for creating efficient infrastructure that will respond to the call for sustainable infrastructural development given the fact that the world is rapidly urbanizing and the environment is being threatened. Previous approaches of road design fail to capture some basic parameters as the cost, automation, and sustainability. As more attention is paid to environmental concerns around the world, the innovations used in construction should be updated. This thesis introduces an approach to generating roads with respect to earthwork optimization that is the vital factor to cost-effective construction and environmental conservation. Integrated with Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodologies the algorithm enhances the design response time while minimizing the detrimental effects of earthwork strategies. It is the authors’ desire to increase the efficiency of the techniques used in road design by applying principles of sustainable design in the contemporary context. In conclusion, the proposed construction algorithm necessarily contributes toward simplification of the design process while improving the performance of the road construction and its sustainability.

1.2 Research Background

Since time immemorial, infrastructure, especially roads and other transport systems, are considered essential means to achieving economical development as well as social mobility. Historic strategic principles for road design have been on the functional imperatives of safety, capacity, and strength. But these modalities omitted the environmental consequences, and cost-effectiveness that are essential in the contemporary constructions. Growing national and international standards on sustainable development coupled with fast rising urban centre have created the need for efficient and environmentally friendly roads construction methods.

Traditionally, road design was done manually without the help of computer algorithms and used standard, highly templated designs based on the engineers’ skills and knowledge. This more often than not resulted in cumbersome procedures and wastage of resources through inefficient resource utilisation, especially in earthwork where the work involved cutting and filling. Earthen works are most widely used and significantly consumed in road construction and they constitute a significant proportion of total money and environmental interfaces. Thus, earthwork optimization has emerged as a fundamental problem in road construction planning for sustainability.

Computer aided designing (CAD), automation systems among other technologies have greatly enhanced road design. An important opportunity created by the integration of algorithms in design contexts has been the potential of increasing performance, reducing costs and environmental footprint. Civil engineering software like Civil 3D by Autodesk has subsidized the exercise in that the designers can now incorporate dynamics in road design and use this platform to estimate the amount of earthwork required.

This evolution is supported by the use of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), a tool used to assess the environmental performance of the construction related activities from raw material acquisition to the disposal of construction waste. Integration of LCA with automated road design in addition to earthwork optimization algorithms is actually a huge step in attaining complex civil engineering economic and sustainable objectives.

1.3 Research Aim

Design an algorithm for the automated designing of roads with earthwork optimization to improve sustainability. The algorithm will be integrated with Life Cycle Assessment in order to minimize environmental impacts and enhance efficiency in road design.

1.4 Research Objectives

To present an algorithm for road designs automation, which takes into account earthwork optimization and Life Cycle Assessment.

To analyze Geometric design parameters and constraints as related to sustainable road design.

To perform LCA on the optimized structure to evaluate its environmental and cost implications

To validate testing with actual applications of real-word road design projects and comparison with traditional methods.

1.5 Research Questions

How can an algorithm be created to enable road design automation and optimize earthwork using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)?

What are the significant geometric parameters and associated constraints for sustainable road design?

How does the inclusion of LCA within the algorithm decrease environmental impact and reduce construction cost?

How efficient is the developed algorithm compared to the conventional techniques in road design?

1.6 Research Rationale

Urbanization is increasingly developing at a rapid rate, and efficient and environmentally friendly roads are becoming equally important. The traditional ways of road design emphasize mainly functionality and cost but barely reflect the environmental impacts and integration of automation capabilities that the world is focusing on in meeting the global sustainability goals. It is imperative to integrate advanced technologies capable of automating and optimizing the road design process with the least environmental impact (Akgol et al. 2022). This research addresses this need by proposing an optimized algorithm for Earthwork-based automated road design with Life Cycle Assessment.

Road construction is rather resource-intensive, especially earthwork, which involves large amounts of excavation and filling. If left unmanaged, it can lead to higher construction costs without consuming more of the materials that are wasted and drastic environmental degradation. Earthwork is considered one of the major design components in roads because it is what determines the construction costs, material utilization, and the long-term maintenance activities for such roads. The research optimized earthwork by proposing an algorithm that aimed to minimize unnecessary excavations, reduce the need for transporting materials, and lower costs in construction while simultaneously relieving the environmental effects (Shan et al. 2023). Moreover, through the implementation of LCA in the algorithm, it would be possible to fully review the road design's environmental impacts, which it would cause during its life cycle. LCA embraces such issues as material production, energy usage, carbon emission, and maintenance. The suggested algorithm unites LCA, where in optimizing the construction process, it will also provide a sustainable condition throughout its operational life. This dual focus on automation and sustainability places the research apart from general approaches that have traditionally been taken in designing roads since automation may not have been considered in the long-run environmental impact up to some extent. Ultimately, this research strives to offer a cost-effective, time-saving, and environmentally friendly alternative to the traditional methods of designing roads (Pastellides et al. 2022). The algorithm presented here can hence significantly enhance the performance as well as prolong the lifespan of existing road infrastructure with minimal environmental damage. This research thus aims to address some of the key challenges in road design automation, earthwork optimization, and environmental sustainability in pursuit of sustainable development objectives in infrastructure projects.

1.7 Research Significance

This research is important because it fills a great need in the increasing demand for sustainable and automated methods of road design. This paper incorporates traditional approaches to road design that tend to ignore the environmental impacts of such designs, not to mention earthwork processes within them. It leads to heavy utilization of materials, costs raised, and generalized degradation of the environment (Fleming et al. 2021). It proposes an algorithm that would automate road design while optimizing earthwork and ultimately integrate LCA.

This research holds much promise in reducing the negative environmental impacts of road construction projects. Earthworks involve excavation, filling, and transportation, which carry massive adverse impacts on the environment, such as erosion, carbon emissions, and energy consumption. The resultant algorithm is such that it minimizes the negative impacts brought about by taking care of the volume of earthwork. The total quantity of material transported and, thus, the carbon emitted through this process are decreased because of optimization. Taking care of LCA, the algorithm will provide a more environmental friendly solution with respect to the overall life cycle of the road-the construction process, the maintenance process, and the process of decommissioning that eventually leads to the end of the life cycle (Zhang et al. 2021). In this respect, this holistic approach ensures that decisions in road design are conducive to long-run sustainability considerations.

Apart from the environmental benefits, optimizing earthwork and design may allow the algorithm to encourage higher economic feasibility in road construction projects. More optimized earthwork and design will mean crucial cost-effectiveness regarding material usage, reducing construction periods, and decreasing maintenance costs. In that regard, a study like this is relevant for policymakers, engineers, and construction companies to be streamed into more cost-effective and sustainable infrastructure solutions. Altogether, the present study facilitates the development of sustainable infrastructure by using a methodology that, besides being an automated road design technique, looks after the designs to remain environmentally and economically optimized (Tang & Lindkvist, 2021). The result of this work will prove valuable to the practitioners engaged in civil engineering, urban planning, as well as environmental management because it would equip them with an up-to-date tool for designing efficient and sustainable roads.

1.8 Research Framework

Figure 1: Research Framework

(Source: Self-created)

1.9 Conclusion

This study focuses on the development of an automated algorithm on the designing of roads by taking into consideration earthwork optimization with Life Cycle Assessment. The design road infrastructure algorithm aims at the quest for environmentally sustainable ways to not only cost less but also economically efficient. The current approaches to road design usually do not take into consideration environmental inefficiency and resource inefficiency inherent in the process of earthwork. Thus, this research recommends a novel approach toward road designing: automation, in light of cutting down as much as possible on impacts on the environment with LCA. The integration of PSO enhances the ability of the algorithm to optimize some of the major design elements that encompass road alignment and slope, thereby lowering material use and construction costs. Overall, the purpose of the research is to contribute more to sustainable development in infrastructure with a tool that will strike a balance between efficiency, cost, and environmental sustainability during road construction projects. Issues identified in this chapter as the research framework open up avenues for further enquiries into these issues.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

The design of roads has been subjected to innovation to embrace cost effective sustainable technologies and products and in part through automation. Earlier techniques used in road design have been characterised by long durations, expensive procedures, and effects on the natural environment, have called for efficient algorithms for effective road design that may use LCA. LCA makes it possible to assess all the environmental aspects over the lifecycle of road construction issues like materials, water, energy, maintenance among others. Earthwork optimization specifically helps to cut down construction costs as well as minimise impact on the environment in order to control the flow of soil and other materials.

Current scholarly publications have called for the application of effective optimization methods including Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) to support road design. The objectives of this research are to review the literature of automated road design studies, earthwork optimization techniques, and LCA integration; and to evaluate the design and empirical evidence, theoretical framework, and knowledge gap in the rapidly developing field. Finally, the literature review shall concern recent work published after the year 2020.Where available the present work will focus on the most current legislation on sustainable infrastructure and sophisticated algorithms.

2.2 Empirical Study

2.2.1 Design of roads for automated cars

The general area of AUTOMATION of road design has been considered researchable because of current trends in design which require quicker and cheaper solutions. Articles like “Automation in Roadway Design Using Civil 3D” demonstrates that parametric and dynamic modelling enhances the correctness and minimises the hand effort in infrastructure projects (Monsaingeon et al. 2021). Civil 3D for example facilitates design of corridors, alignments and surface models among them, which increases the efficiency of the design time while at the same time observing accuracy.

Figure 2: Design of roads for automated cars

(Source: Monsaingeon et al. 2021)

Other works defined computational methods to implement AI that could act as automated road layout designers where terrain data would be incorporated to develop the best design. This minimised human mistakes and the entire process of the generation of other possible design solutions was accelerated. The use of optimisation algorithms in the design process adds another level of control to the possibility of achieving a balance between geometry and the environment.

2.2.2 Optimization of Earthwork

A lot of material has shown that earthwork is the most time-consuming and expensive aspect of road construction; hence, it needs to be optimised in the course of design. In recent years, Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Genetic Algorithms (GA) have been used to minimise the earthwork costs and the negative effects on the environment. Later in 2020, Wang et al., utilised the PSO for vertical alignment optimization in road design. Consequently, their study showed that PSO decreased earthwork volume and in turn the amount of fuel that is used by the machinery and the level of emitted greenhouse gases.

Figure 3: Road Network

(Source: Madadi et al. 2020)

Likewise, the specialists examined GA to improve the horizontal and vertical provisons of highways. What they found was endorsing the applicability of the evolutionary algorithms in minimising over all construction area through optimisation of land that does not require excavation and transportation of undesired material (Madadi et al. 2020). These optimization methods minimise land disturbances by including topographical data during construction, minimising the effects of construction on the environment and guarantee that roads developed conform to the optimum standards.

2.2.3 Assessment of Life Cycle in the design of roads

LCA has been increasingly used in road design in the recent past, thanks to the call for more environmentally friendly infrastructure across the world. LCA appraises roads in terms of their existence from the extraction of raw materials to construction, use and maintenance, and even abandoning the roads until they are reclaimed. An extensive work done by author analysed the environmental comparison of different pavements materials by using LCA to find out that Recycled Asphalt has low carbon footprint and energy consumption than the conventional materials.

Figure 4: SUV Life Cycle Assessment

(Source: Kemp et al. 2020)

However, a study by the asuthor supported LCA into the initial phases of design with an aim of influencing material choice and construction typology. The two concurred that research showed that the success of LCA is better when it is done at the time of design rather than at a later date (Kemp et al. 2020). This approach makes it possible to look at each part of the design from a position of not causing any harm to the environment.

2.2.4 Combination of LCA with Algorithms

New approaches have been oriented to the use of algorithms for LCA combined with the application of the automated tools in the process of road construction design. For example, the proposed fuzzy-PSO algorithm in the work of the author4) elaborated the integration of PSO with LCA to find near-optimal road alignment plans while considering the losses to environment (Sathiya et al. 2021). They demonstrated that the inclusion of LCA in the design process, in real-time, enriched decision making by factoring in economic, environment and social costs.

A similar study by the author integrated PSO with LCA as a hybrid algorithm for both cost and sustainable consideration in roads design. According to their investigations, the hybrid model provided superior value as compared with the conventional road design approach by shaving costs while at the same time providing a superior environmental benefit. This research establishes an addition to this line of research that LCA and optimization techniques can be applied to developed sustainable infrastructure.

2.2.5 Efficiency of design of roads for automatic vehicles

A major advantage of the automation in road design is that there are considerable gains in time and errors in the design phase. More recent investigations featured the application of Autodesk Civil 3D to help the designers draw alignments, cross-sections, and model the surface of the roads, automatically (Guériau & Dusparic, 2020). The author’s research also proved worthwhile in showing that positive feedback, which is used in the design of roads, offer the ability to provide live updates and modify one part of a road model knowing that any changes will affect other related components. This eliminates chances of executing several designs and comes up with a better design. This simply means that the study showed that the design time was reduced by 30% as opposed to the normal manual methods of design.

Figure 5: Efficiency of design of roads for automatic vehicles

(Source: Guériau & Dusparic, 2020)

However, the study by the author was centred on the automation of geometric road design, including the topographic analysis and geometric constraints in the design equation. It was also possible to use this automated approach in quickly evaluating several scenarios to determine which road layout best fits the project’s cost and ecological expenditure restraints (Forth et al. 2023). The study supported the claim that mathematical models of road design can generate optimal alignments that incorporate the specifications of road construction and design together with environmental standards.

2.2.6 New Techniques

On the optimization front, the future development in which the existing algorithm consists of Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) or Genetic Algorithms (GA) has been considered a breakthrough. The research done by the author on PSO applies swarm intelligence to determine the best solution for roads alignment by improving the position of ‘particles’ using their best known positions (Bathla et al. 2022). Li has employed PSO to a real-life large-scale road construction project and realised that the application of PSO reduced earthwork more than 15%, which in effect, has decreased constructions costs associated with material transport and fuel costs.

Figure 6: New Techniques

(Source: Bathla et al. 2022)

In a like manner, the author utilised GA for the horizontal and vertical alignment optimization for which the result indicated that through the means of GA, material usage can be optimally minimised while alignment conforms to the set standards and legal provisions. These algorithms do not require vast computational power for their implementation, yet they afford flexibility in changing design constraints including curvature of the roads, their slopes, or super-elevation, to meet environmental objectives as well as satisfy the need to construct roads cheaply and efficiently.

2.2.7 Use of LCA in the betterment of sustainability

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has become a critical tool in evaluating the environmental impacts of road construction. The study by the author emphasized the importance of using LCA early in the design process to inform decisions regarding material selection and construction strategies (Cremer et al. 2021). The research applied LCA to several road projects and found that using recycled materials for pavement construction reduced greenhouse gas emissions by up to 20% compared to traditional asphalt. Additionally, the study identified that LCA integration could prevent environmentally harmful practices, such as excessive use of virgin materials or unnecessary earthwork, which contribute to higher emissions and energy consumption during the road’s lifecycle.

Figure 7: Use of LCA in the betterment of sustainability

(Source: Cremer et al. 2021)

An empirical study by the author also explored the relationship between earthwork optimization and LCA, applying both to optimize road design in a highly sensitive ecological area. Their results highlighted that by using earthwork optimization in tandem with LCA, they were able to minimize the disturbance of natural habitats and reduce the total amount of land that needed to be excavated by 12% (Forth et al. 2023). This demonstrated the clear environmental benefits of incorporating LCA within the optimization process.

2.2.8 Automated Earthwork

These approaches have also been shown to be affluent when put into practise through the validations as presented here. Out of a big infrastructural project the author compared their automated road design algorithm to the ordinary manual ones. They demonstrated the same were optimised by 25% with the earthwork and the incorporation of LCA in the choice of the construction material (Gebre, 2023). As a result of bounding the vertical and horizontal curvatures of the roads, the algorithm decreased the amount of cut and fill needed for the roads to be built, meaning less fuel and material were needed. These cost savings together with environment friendly solution made a strong argument for the use of automated LCA integrated road design system.

2.3 Theories and Models

The principles of optimising road design stem from the fields of optimization, as well as the life cycle assessment. Optimization theory has been practised in engineering disciplines to deal with problems which requisition resource allocation, cost, and efficient design issues. Both Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Genetic Algorithms (GA) are two well known models implemented in road design optimization (Hermansdorfer et al. 2024). Optimization of the earthwork and alignments is done using the Population based PSO, which is a technique imitating bird flocking to search for the best value of the population.

On the other hand, the GA primarily utilises selection based on natural selection process and makes use of crossover as well as mutation to develop possible solutions. Though both methods are used in optimising problem where the solution space is continuous, GA is more applicable in optimization of problems where the solution space is discrete.

As an outcome of industrial ecology, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is the main model used to the assessment of environmental impacts in the infrastructure sector. The subject of this research is to use optimization algorithms to supplement LCA to have economic and environmental targets for road design (Biancardo et al. 2020). LCA implementation in the design phase can actively provide decision-makers with the anticipated extended sustainability of materials and processes, into the lifecycle of the infrastructure.

The integration of optimization methods with LCA is a contemporary trend in practising sustainability alongside real-world engineering constraints.

2.4 Literature Gap

There are several limitations which are still observed in road design automation as follows. First, most of the knowledge used for real time design is still not fully developed and adopted by LCA practitioners.Some of the studies use LCA in a backward manner, meaning it cannot be used in the reduction of impacts as the design process proceeds.sign processes is still in its infancy. Many studies apply LCA retrospectively, which limits its effectiveness in reducing environmental impacts during the design phase. Furthermore, PSO and GA have been used for solving the earthwork optimization problem, however, there is relatively scarce literature on assessing the sustainability impacts of solution from the above-mentioned approaches in road design projects in the long run. Only a few have analysed whether using these algorithms is cost-effective when compared to conventional approaches in real-world applications.

Moreover, there are few systematic studies on the combination of these algorithms with BIM systems such as Autodesk Civil 3D, and there are opportunities for additional investigations into how the additional integration can improve construction performance and enviro-innovation.

2.6 Conclusion

The possibility to design roads automatically through the use of optimization algorithms as PSO and GA contributed much in the way toward sustainable infrastructure. By applying what is known as the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), the effect of roads construction, management and reclaiming roles of designers can be reduced to the barest minimum on the environment. Studies have indicated that PSO and GA enhance the efficiency earth work by minimising material transportation and fuel cost whereas LCA can be used to determine the amount of impact a particular project has on the environment. Nevertheless, these are some missing links regarding the application of LCA in real time context of road design and sustainability analysis of these algorithms in the long run.

An area of further research concern should be directed towards combining LCA with BIM tools where the design processes of the buildings can be enhanced even further. However, there is a lack of adequate literature comparing the costs and benefits of applying these new algorithms with the existing ways of designing roads. Altogether, this research shows that the application of automated algorithms as well as LCA gives significant hopes for the future development of sustainable road design.

Chapter 3: Methodology

3.1 Introduction

It describes the approach towards developing an automated algorithm for road design to optimize earthwork along with LCA for sustainability. Methodology devised to ensure a systematic approach through the use of advanced computational techniques, such as Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), to achieve optimal design solutions. In developing the research methodology, the parameters of the geometric road design are first sourced. The algorithm is developed and tested based on these parameters, then, on MATLAB and Autodesk Civil 3D. Both tools are applied in the simulation and modeling of the road design. PSO optimizes earthwork while LCA is integrated to assess environmental impacts on any selected choice. This chapter details the procedures carried out-from data gathering to the validation of the proposed algorithm-to see that design meets not only environmental sensitivity requirements but those of cost-effectiveness as well. This methodology enables the study to be performed with great potential in reaching a strong, sustainable, and efficient solution for road design.

3.2 Method Outline

This work follows structured methodology to develop an algorithm for optimizing earthwork in an automated road design with integration of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for sustainability. This work begins by discussing the literature review regarding the existing methods in automated road design, earthwork optimization, and environmental impact assessments. The data collection was thus carried out, gathering the important geometrical parameters required for designing roads, ranging from alignment to cross-sectional profiles and slope. These parameters were inputted into the algorithm.

From that point forward, the core of the method would then be in the development of the algorithm by using MATLAB, wherein PSO will be engaged in minimizing the volume of earthwork to obtain an optimum road geometric alignment (Akhmet et al. 2022). Modeling and simulation are performed by Autodesk Civil 3D, which translates to dynamic adjustments of road designs being made at any point concerning reality. The algorithm allows LCA integration to assess the environmental impact of the choices, be it material usage, energy consumption, and emissions from the life of the road. The final validation exercise was against the use case, comparing an optimized approach with traditional approaches in road projects as a basis to ensure cost-saving opportunities while minimizing negative impacts on the environment without negatively affecting the design standards achieved in the methodology.

3.3 Research Philosophy

Philosophy in research plays an important role. It is useful in meeting the objectives of research. There can be different forms of objectives to be used in research. However, the selection of this philosophy is dependent on the nature of the result intended for the research. On the basis of the philosophy, the method to be used in research is decided (Wang, 2023). Among the different philosophies, the philosophy that was used here was the philosophy of “positivism”.

Figure 8: Research Philosophy

(Source: https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSoTL2OtisBeMnwaQ9RgZlzPLJ325qPOpcn5Q&s)

This philosophy is best suited for this research. It is because, here data was analysed in order to determine the research results. Data from the road profile was used here in order to show the difference in vertical alignment throughout the road. As this is based on real-time data, this philosophy works well in the determination of the results.

3.4 Research approach

The approach of research defines following which methods or approaches a research is done. Among many approaches, there are mainly two prime categories into which all the approaches fall. These two approaches are “deductive” and “inductive” approach. These have characteristics different from each other. In the first approach, the input that is used as the raw materials for the research is the different kinds of theoretical explanations of the important aspects of this research (Byaruhanga & Evdorides, 2022). Whereas the second form of research is based on actual data about the research topic. From this data, results are determined in the form of explanations that meet the “research objectives”.

Figure 9: Research Approach

(Source: https://rm-15da4.kxcdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Inductive-approach-inductive-reasoning1.png)

The focus of this research is focused on making a “geometrical design” of a road. This research used the “inductive approach”. It is because the data that was used here was the real data of a road. On the basis of this data, the profile of the road was drawn. From this, it can be said that this approach was the most suitable for this research.

3.5 Research Design

Different kinds of designs can be used in research. These are selected on the basis of the nature of the results needed from research. The two main categories of design of research are “quantitative” and “qualitative” research. They are different from each other in terms of the nature of data use and the type of result obtained (Liu et al. 2021). It can be observed that for this research, the alignment of a road was prepared. It was done by means of the profile data of a road. Hence, the design that was used here was the “quantitative design”. The “cutting & filling” were calculated through this “profile design”.

3.6 Research Strategy

The strategy of research defines the techniques to do all the research activities. It can be seen that this research consists of a set of stages starting from background research, collection of data and ending with the determination of results and documenting them. The collection of data about the process of designing roads was studied. Similar other researches were studied in order to take ideas from them (Lovato et al. 2021). Also, the factors influencing the “geometric design” of roads were considered. The data of the road bottom levels at all the road stretches were collected to draw the vertical profile of the road.

3.7 Research Method

The method of research defines the nature of the approach that was used for the research. Depending on the type of research there are a different kind of researches are observed. The applicability of a method is dependent on the research topic and the nature of the result that is to be determined. Among the different methods, there are three methods used in the research all around the world. These methods are “Mono”, “mixed” and “multi” methods.

This research used the “mono method”. The main characteristic of this “research method” is that here a single type of process is used for both the data collection and its analysis. Here, primary data was collected from a road (Maulana et al. 2022). The data was about the longitudinal stretches along with the vertical profile of a road. On the other hand, the alignment of the road was drawn by means of 3D software. These two confirm the use of the “mono method”.

3.8 Data Collection Method

Figure 10: Data Collection Methods

(Source: https://topichelp.in/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/data-collection.webp)

Data is the most valuable asset for research. Data determines the quality of the results of research. Although it is needed authentic sources are needed so that quality data can be obtained. Here, the data on a road was collected. The data refers here to the road bottom-level value. The level values along the centre line of the road were collected throughout the length of the road. Along with the vertical level of the road, the coordinates of the points whose vertical level was collected were recorded (Mamoun et al. 2021). Suitable engineering tools were used to collect these data. In this manner, the alignment of the road was drawn using “Civil 3D” software.

3.9 Research Ethics

The ethics that were tried to maintain in this research are provided below.

• The process adopted for the collection of data is based on the research standards for the collection of data.
• The privacy of data was maintained throughout the research.
• No form of discrimination was done during the research.
• No community is harmed through this research.
• In publishing the results honesty & transparency were maintained.
• Manipulation result was prohibited.

3.10 Research Limitations

This research is the combination of several stages. All of these stages together made the research possible. Despite such great effort, still, many things are there to be done in this research. This limits this research. The first one in this is the comparison of the different design standards for designing roads. Other than this here only the “cutting & filling” of a road is checked to decide the longitudinal profile of the road. However, there is other work like the design of each geometric component of a road could have been done.

3.11 Time Horizon

Figure 11: Time Horizon

(Source: Self-created in Project Libre)

3.12 Conclusion

This research is aimed to find out the best geometric design for a road. Roads are the basic units that support the movement of vehicles. This time the focus is on such roads that support the movement of “automatic vehicles”. There are different components are there of a road. These components can be observed in the “cross-section” of a road. The details of the factors that determine the design of a road are illustrated here. It can be seen that there was a particular road was selected. The details of the profile data of the road were collected. This data consists of the bottom level of the roads. From this data, the longitudinal slope of the road is identified. From this data, the entire alignment of the road was drawn with the use of the “Civil 3D” software. This chapter provided the details of all the stages from starting to the end of this research.

Reference List

Journals

• Akgol, K., Gunay, B. and Aydin, M.M., 2022, July. Geometric optimisation of chicanes using driving simulator trajectory data. In Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Transport (Vol. 175, No. 4, pp. 238-248). Thomas Telford Ltd.
• Akhmet, A., Hare, W. and Lucet, Y., 2022. Bi-objective optimization for road vertical alignment design. Computers & Operations Research, 143, p.105764.
• Aryal, P., 2020. Optimization of geometric road design for autonomous vehicle.
• Backes, J.G. and Traverso, M., 2021. Application of life cycle sustainability assessment in the construction sector: A systematic literature review. Processes, 9(7), p.1248.
• Bathla, G., Bhadane, K., Singh, R.K., Kumar, R., Aluvalu, R., Krishnamurthi, R., Kumar, A., Thakur, R.N. and Basheer, S., 2022. Autonomous vehicles and intelligent automation: Applications, challenges, and opportunities. Mobile Information Systems, 2022(1), p.7632892.
• Biancardo, S.A., Capano, A., de Oliveira, S.G. and Tibaut, A., 2020. Integration of BIM and procedural modeling tools for road design. Infrastructures, 5(4), p.37.
• Byaruhanga, C.B. and Evdorides, H., 2022. A budget optimisation model for road safety infrastructure countermeasures. Cogent Engineering, 9(1), p.2129363.
• Cremer, A., Müller, K. and Finkbeiner, M., 2021. A systemic view of future mobility scenario impacts on and their implications for city organizational LCA: the case of autonomous driving in Vienna. Sustainability, 14(1), p.158.
• Fleming, J., Yan, X., Allison, C., Stanton, N. and Lot, R., 2021. Real‐time predictive eco‐driving assistance considering road geometry and long‐range radar measurements. IET Intelligent Transport Systems, 15(4), pp.573-583.
• Forth, K., Abualdenien, J. and Borrmann, A., 2023. Calculation of embodied GHG emissions in early building design stages using BIM and NLP-based semantic model healing. Energy and Buildings, 284, p.112837.
• Gebre, T., 2023. Comparison and Investigation of the Possibility of Merging Life Cycle Assessment Tools for Road Construction and Operation Purposes (Master's thesis).
• Guériau, M. and Dusparic, I., 2020, September. Quantifying the impact of connected and autonomous vehicles on traffic efficiency and safety in mixed traffic. In 2020 IEEE 23rd International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC) (pp. 1-8). IEEE.
• Hermansdorfer, M., Oettinger, C., Skov-Petersen, H., Fricker, P. and Negendahl, K., 2024. Advancing Low-Emission Urban Design Through Parametric Modelling and Life Cycle Assessment. Journal of Digital Landscape Architecture, 9, pp.858-872.
• Kemp, N.J., Keoleian, G.A., He, X. and Kasliwal, A., 2020. Life cycle greenhouse gas impacts of a connected and automated SUV and van. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 83, p.102375.
• Lestari, H.P.A. and Indrastuti, I., 2023. Re-Design of Road Geometric Planning Using Indonesian Standard Case Study: Fly Over Cakung. LEADER: Civil Engineering and Architecture Journal, 1(4), pp.402-412.
• Liu, J., Feng, L. and Li, Z., 2021. Optimal road grade design based on stochastic speed trajectories for minimising transportation energy consumption. IET Intelligent Transport Systems, 15(11), pp.1414-1428.
• Lovato, S., Massaro, M. and Limebeer, D.J.N., 2021. Curved-ribbon-based track modelling for minimum lap-time optimisation. Meccanica, 56(8), pp.2139-2152.
• Madadi, B., van Nes, R., Snelder, M. and Van Arem, B., 2020. A bi‐level model to optimize road networks for a mixture of manual and automated driving: An evolutionary local search algorithm. Computer‐Aided Civil and Infrastructure Engineering, 35(1), pp.80-96.
• Mamoun, K.A., Hammadi, L., Ballouti, A.E. and De Cursi, E.S., 2021. Optimisation models for Transportation Network Design under Uncertainty: a literature review. arXiv preprint arXiv:2201.07161.
• Maulana, S.H., Rifai, A.I. and Isradi, M., 2022. The Horizontal Curved Geometric Redesign on Jalan Kayu Api Kuala Penaso, Riau Using the Autocad Civil 3d® Method. Indonesian Journal of Multidisciplinary Science, 1(1), pp.318-330.
• Monsaingeon, N., Caroux, L., Mouginé, A., Langlois, S. and Lemercier, C., 2021. Impact of interface design on drivers’ behavior in partially automated cars: An on-road study. Transportation research part F: traffic psychology and behaviour, 81, pp.508-521.
• Pastellides, S., Gerber, S., Wang, R.J. and Kamper, M., 2022. Evaluation of drive cycle-based traction motor design strategies using gradient optimisation. Energies, 15(3), p.1095.
• Sathiya, V., Chinnadurai, M., Ramabalan, S. and Appolloni, A., 2021. Mobile robots and evolutionary optimization algorithms for green supply chain management in a used-car resale company. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 23(6), pp.9110-9138.
• Shan, Y., Li, X. and Zhou, S., 2023. Multi-objective optimisation methodology for stiffness combination design of bridge-embankment transition zones in high-speed railways. Computers and Geotechnics, 155, p.105242.
• Tang, M. and Lindkvist, K., 2021. Reducing the squeak and rattle risk by improving the dynamic response and geometric variation in an assembly using topometry optimisation.
• Wang, L., 2023. Safety evaluation for highway geometric design based on spatial path properties. Journal of advanced transportation, 2023(1), p.6685010.
• Wang, Y., Sun, Z., Ju, S., Guo, D. and Yang, G., 2023. Robust optimisation of the streamlined shape of a high-speed train in crosswind conditions. Engineering Applications of Computational Fluid Mechanics, 17(1), p.2234012.
• Wu, Z., Li, W. and Liu, X., 2021. Optimal design of the drive motor based on the road condition of the electric vehicle. IET Electric Power Applications, 15(3), pp.379-389.
• Yang, L., Gobbi, M., Mastinu, G., Previati, G. and Ballo, F., 2022. Multi-disciplinary optimisation of road vehicle chassis subsystems. Energies, 15(6), p.2172.
• Zhang, H., Zhang, M., Zhang, C. and Hou, L., 2021. Formulating a GIS-based geometric design quality assessment model for Mountain highways. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 157, p.106172.